James Hutton

James Hutton is also known as the father of modern geology. Apart from being one of the most prominent figures in this field of science, he is also a noted physician, naturalist, chemical manufacturer, and an experimental agriculturalist. One of his most salient contributions to science was his uniformitarianism which happens to be one of the fundamental principles that geology has. Not only did he make great observations concerning the world that surrounded him, he was able to come up with reasoned and valid geological arguments.

Early Life and Educational Background

He was one of five children of the merchant named William Hutton who was also at that time the city treasurer of Edinburgh. His father, however, died when he was still young and it was their mother Sarah Balfour who had taken care of him and his siblings.

His mother had insisted that James should attend the High School of Edinburgh and James had shown a particular interest for chemistry and mathematics. When he turned 14 though, he studied as a “student of humanity” at the University of Edinburgh. He then became a lawyer’s apprentice, but upon the advice of his employer for him to have a more congenial career, James Hutton began to pursue his interest in medicine as it was nearest to chemistry which was his favorite pursuit back then.

For three years, he studied in Edinburgh and was able to complete his medical education in the University of Paris. In the year 1974, he finished his degree as a Doctor of Medicine at Leiden where his thesis had been on blood circulation. During that time, however, it wasn’t exactly the boom of the medical profession and seeing there was little opportunity for him, James Hutton left his career as a doctor and pursued agricultural endeavors.

Careers

He had inherited a small property which had been in their family since 1713 when his father passed away. He used this piece of land in Berwickshire for his agricultural pursuits. It was after his not so fruitful practice of medicine that he moved back to their farm in the Slighhouses and he began making some improvements when he settled there in 1750. He had experimented with both plant as well as animal husbandry, and noted his innovations and ideas in a work called The Elements of Agriculture. One of his more famous accomplishments in agriculture involved his development of a red dye he was able to make from the madder plant’s roots.

His exposure to agriculture was what had led him to develop a love for geology for which he is famous for. The process of clearing and then draining the farm had given him enough opportunities to observe rocks and their formation. The farm became a stable place and later on he was able to build a house where he and his three sisters lived in Edinburgh.

James Hutton and Geology

Back in the day, geology in the proper meaning of the word was practically nonexistent, but there was quite a progress in mineralogy. Ideas conceived by James Hutton were unheard of and were not easily entertained by those who were then the experts in mineralogy. He had desired to trace the origins of different rocks and minerals which would then lead to a better understanding of the earth’s history.

He pursued his research for years, and it was in the spring of 1785 when he had expressed his views to the Royal Society of Edinburgh—only recently established then through his work called Theory of the Earth, or an Investigation of the Laws Observable in the Composition, Dissolution and Restoration of Land upon the Globe. His work had been remarkable and he had expressed how this study was not at all like cosmogony.

According to Hutton, geology is a study which is confined to the materials found on the earth and that all around there may be evidence proving that the rocks which are now visible on the earth’s surface may have been part of greater, older rocks which have previously been in the bottom of the sea—that there is a cycle of rock formation and that pressure, heat, and other factors contribute to the presence of these materials on the earth’s surface.

He searched for evidence to prove his theories, and discovered how granite was able to penetrate metamorphic schists—which was indicative or granite’s being molten at one point. He had also discovered a similar event of penetration of volcanic rocks through sedimentary rocks. James Hutton had even travelled with John Playfair to find more geological samples proving the origin of rocks and minerals by examining the unconformities and rock formations they came across.

From the observations and research that Hutton had noted, he reasoned how there must have already been innumerable cycles which each involved the deposition of materials onto the seabed, uplift of these same materials through tilting and erosion, and formation of different layers under the sea. The thicknesses of the layers had implied to him the stretches of time in between the formation of these rocks.

Other Interests

It was not only geology that had captured the attention of Hutton, but he also had an interest for meteorology and the earth’s atmosphere. Apart from his publication called “Theory of the Earth” he also had one entitled “Theory of the Rain” where he had investigated about the climate as well as rainfall in different parts of the world which led him to conclude that rainfall is regulated by humidity as well as air currents.

He had also believed that the earth is a superorganism, but this idea of his was overshadowed by the reductionism in the 19^th century. Apart from those beliefs, he also advocated the uniformitarianism for living organisms.

Much of the contributions of Hutton received less attention than it should have when he was still alive, but five years after his death, John Playfair published a great summary of Hutton’s works in Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth, and a biography of the father of geology was also published by Playfair in the fifth volume of Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

World Coconut Day (2 September)

Coconut Secrets for Optimal Health

• Helps Prevent Obesity by speeding up metabolism, providing an immediate source of energy with fewer calories than other fats.  People, who consistently use coconut products, report a stronger ability to go without eating for several hours with no affects of hypoglycemia. 

• Improves Heart Health by providing healthy short chain and medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) that are essential to good health.  Close to 98% of all fatty acids consumed are composed of long-chain fatty acids (LCFA), which are very different from MCFA that have no negative effect on cholesterol ratios and help to lower the risk of atherosclerosis and protect against heart disease.  Studies have shown that populations in Polynesia and Sri Lanka, where coconuts are a dietary staple, do not suffer from high serum cholesterol or heart disease.  Unlike other fats, the unique properties of coconut also contain a large amount of lauric acid, which is the predominant fatty acid found in mother's milk.

• High in Dietary Fiber rivaling other fiber sources such as psyllium, wheat bran, oat bran, and rice bran.  Coconut supplies an impressive 61% dietary fiber!   Foods contain two types of carbohydrates - digestible and non-digestible.  Digestible carbohydrates (soluble fiber) consist of starch and sugar and promote calories. A non-digestible carbohydrate (insoluble fiber) contains NO calories.  Since the body cannot digest the dietary fiber in coconut, no calories are derived from it and it has no effect on blood sugar. 

• Low Glycemic Index (GI) measures how fast available carbohydrates in food raise blood sugar levels.  Coconut fiber slows down the release of glucose, therefore requiring less insulin to utilize the glucose and transport it into the cell where it is converted into energy.  Coconut also assists in relieving stress on the pancreas and enzyme systems of the body, in turn, reducing the risks associated with Diabetes.  Coconut Nectar and Crystals have a very low GI of only 35 (compared to honey with a GI of 55-83, and sugar with a GI of 65-100.)

• Reduces Sweet Cravings and improves insulin secretion and utilization of blood glucose.  The healthy fat in coconut slows down any rise in blood sugar and helps to reduce hypoglycemic cravings. 

• Improves Digestion and many of the symptoms and inflammatory conditions associated with digestive and bowel disorders, by supporting absorption of other nutrients including vitamins, minerals, and amino acids while also providing beneficial dietary fiber.

• Quick Energy Boost that provides a super nutritious source of extra energy.  Coconut is utilized by the body to actually produce energy, rather than to store it as body fat.  It supports improved endurance during physical and athletic performance. As well, it promotes healthy thyroid function and helps to relieve the symptoms of chronic fatigue.

• In addition, coconut contains No Trans-Fats, is Gluten-Free, Non-Toxic, Hypoallergenic, and also contains Antibacterial, Antiviral, Antifungal, and Anti-parasitic healing properties.  Coconut helps to aid and support overall Immune System functions.

·         Health Benefits of Saturated Fats

·         Taped on my refrigerator in my home, is an old, tattered verse that I cut out of a magazine nearly a dozen years ago that so aptly sets the tone for this topic about saturated fats. It reads as follows:

·         A Short History of Medicine

·         "I Have an Earache..."

·         2000 BC: Here, eat this root. 1000 AD: That root is heathen. Here, say this prayer. 1850 AD: That prayer is superstition. Here, drink this potion. 1940 AD: That potion is snake oil. Here, swallow this pill. 1985 AD: That pill is ineffective. Here, take this antibiotic. 2000 AD: That antibiotic is artificial. Here, eat this root...

·         During my 32 years of experience consulting in the fields of natural/organic products and wellness, it has become apparent that so many things that are thought to be good and healthy, eventually are seen to be bad and unhealthy, and then miraculously many moons later, are once again proven to reign supreme at the top of the list of the most healthful, beneficial foods to consume.

·         The western world's knowledge and beliefs around the subject of saturated fats, were sadly shunned to this road too often travelled when in the 1920's, American agribusiness embarked on one of the most successful ad campaigns of all times ~ to steer the public away from the traditional saturated fats consumed by our ancestors (such as butter, coconut and palm oils, and animal fats like lard, tallow and suet), and instead, to embrace domestically produced unsaturated fats (such as soy, corn, canola, safflower and sunflower seed oils) which were cleverly touted to be safer, low cholesterol, heart-healthy alternatives. Hence, the medical establishment jumped onboard, and the fate of saturated fats was set into motion. The rest is now imprinted onto the history of a generation replete with the very conditions these 'superior' fats were supposed to prevent.

·         THE CIRCLE OF TRUTH

·         Eighty years and an entire generation later, the American mindset is finally coming full circle, and recognizing / remembering the basic foods of their ancestral roots. The truth has a persistent way of always shining its light through every adversity...

·         It is now understood that saturated fats do not create high cholesterol, do not contribute to heart disease, are not cancer-causing, do not draw from the body's reserves of antioxidants, and do not clog arteries.

·         On the contrary, it's now known that saturated fats play many vital roles in the body to help strengthen the immune system, promote healthy bones, provide energy and structural integrity to the cells, protect the liver, and assist the body's metabolism of essential fatty acids. Most importantly, saturated fats actually have cholesterol lowering properties and are the perfect dietary adjunct for a strong, healthy heart. As well, the short and medium chain fatty acids inherent in saturated fats have important antimicrobial properties, protecting us against harmful microorganisms in the digestive tract.

·         Below are commonly held misconceptions regarding the health benefits of saturated fats in the body. Whether you gravitate toward a raw food vegan lifestyle, or you prefer to include eggs, dairy and meat in your diet, it is important to understand the new (yet old) scientific research and decide for yourself what feels right in your own body. Truly consider the wisdom of the traditional diets referenced throughout our most revered spiritual texts, that have stood the test of time and proven themselves to be not only healthful, but life-sustaining across generations.

·         MISCONCEPTION:

·         Consuming saturated fat causes high cholesterol.

·         NEW RESEARCH:

·         Your body makes both saturated fats and cholesterol - approximately 2000 mg per day. As an antioxidant, cholesterol protects us against free radical damage that leads to heart disease and cancer. Cholesterol is the body's repair substance, manufactured in large amounts when the arteries are irritated or structurally weak. The body's natural healing substance then steps in to repair the damage - and that substance is cholesterol! "Blaming heart disease on high serum cholesterol levels is like blaming the firemen who have come to put out a fire, for starting it in the first place!" (quote by Mary Engg PhD and Sally Fallon, President of The Weston A. Price Foundation)

·         MISCONCEPTION:

·         Saturated fats and cholesterol cause clogged arteries.

·         NEW RESEARCH:

·         In a three-year study conducted at the University of Washington, researchers examined the diets and coronary artery conditions of 235 women in the United States with an average age of 66. It was found that women who had regularly eaten the highest amounts of saturated fats had the least amount of additional plaque buildup in their arteries. Also, women who ate more saturated fats had a healthier balance of good and bad cholesterol and more desirable blood concentrations of various kinds of fats.

·         Another interesting study is the ongoing Framingham Heart Study, in which researchers found that, "The more saturated fat one ate, the more cholesterol one ate, the more calories one ate, the lower the person's serum cholesterol. It appeared that the people who ate the most cholesterol, saturated fat, and calories - weighed the least, and were the most physically active."

·         A revealing medical evaluation performed at the Wynn Institute for Metabolic Research in London regarding the kind of fat found in clogged arteries, showed that only about 26 percent is saturated fat. The remaining 74 percent is unsaturated fat, of which more than half of that is polyunsaturated fat. (Felton, CV, et al, Lancet, 1994, 344:1195)

·         MISCONCEPTION:

·         Consuming foods rich in saturated fats and cholesterol make people prone to heart disease.

·         NEW RESEARCH:

·         It is now believed that cholesterol is not the cause of heart disease but rather a potent antioxidant weapon against free radicals in the blood, and a repair substance that helps heal arterial damage. High serum cholesterol levels often indicate that the body needs cholesterol to protect itself from high levels of free-radical-containing fats. It is needed in a poorly nourished body to actually protect our bodies from a tendency towards heart disease and cancer.
The cause of heart disease is no longer attributed to saturated fats and cholesterol, but rather a number of factors inherent in modern diets, including an excess consumption of vegetable oils and hydrogenated fats. The onset of pathogenic plaque leading to heart disease, has now been associated with the disappearance of antimicrobial saturated fats from the food supply that once protected us against viruses and bacteria, such as tropical oils like coconut and palm, as well as animal fats like raw dairy, lard, tallow, etc.
In a study published over a decade ago on cooking oils in the Journal of the Indian Medical Association, a New Delhi hospital compared modern day polyunsaturated oils (such as sunflower, safflower, soy and corn oils) to coconut oil in relation to heart disease and Type II diabetes. The researchers found that while heart disease and diabetes had increased with consumption of polyunsaturated vegetable and seed oils, it decreased with traditional oils like coconut oil.

·         Numerous population studies have shown that people living in countries where large quantities of coconut oil and other saturated fats are consumed, have remarkably good cardiovascular health.

·         At first this observation confused many researchers, because they did not recognize the difference between medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) and other fats. New research however, has demonstrated that the MCFAs in coconut oil protect against heart disease.

·         MISCONCEPTION:

·         Saturated fats are unhealthy for diabetics.

·         NEW RESEARCH:

·         The body requires insulin to process carbohydrates, but NOT to process fats. And even though fat contains more calories than carbohydrates, it is actually carbohydrates that are stored in the body as fat.

·         Before the discovery of insulin, the only treatment for diabetes was a very high-fat, zero-carb diet. Because fats slow down the entry of sugar into the bloodstream, it is good for diabetics, and for everyone, to eat fats together with carbohydrates. Dietary fats assist in lowering the glycemic index of carbohydrate foods and help to stabilize blood sugar.

·         Saturated fats do not cause insulin resistance. Trans-fats are the culprits that cause insulin resistance, yet sadly researchers often confuse trans-fats with saturated fats. When people are told to stop eating saturated fats, unfortunately they can end up eating more trans-fats instead.

·         Consuming saturated fats (coconut oil, butter, lard, and meat fat) helps to protect against the damaging effects of polyunsaturated vegetable oils and trans-fats, which are relatively new to the human diet.

·         MISCONCEPTION:

·         Saturated fats contribute to obesity.

·         NEW RESEARCH:

·         It might sound odd to a large majority of people who think fat makes us fat, but coconut oil and other saturated fats actually contribute to weight 'loss' not weight
gain. In a lab experiment, animals were fed either a low-fat diet with unsaturated oils, or a high-fat diet with coconut oil. The researchers found that while even small amounts of unsaturated fat caused weight gain, the animals that consumed coconut oil remained lean. This is because saturated fat increases metabolism, which then burns calories faster.

·         An example of this can be found in the people of the Yucatan. They consume high amounts of coconut as a staple food and their average metabolic rate is about 25 percent higher than people in the U.S.

MISCONCEPTION:

·         It is healthier to cook with vegetable oils.

·         NEW RESEARCH:

·         Saturated fats are stable and do not oxidize even at high heat cooking temperatures including deep frying. However, high heat cooking will definitely oxidize polyunsaturated oils and to a certain extent monounsaturated oils (such as olive oil), which then creates harmful free radicals.

·         Unsaturated fats exposed to high heat and oxygen during cooking or commercial food processing, undergo a chemical change known as auto-oxidation, whereby free radicals are produced that cause rancidity. Up until the early 1980's, restaurants and fast food establishments used saturated lard, lamb or beef tallow fat for all their sauteing and deep frying. Sadly today, restaurants almost exclusively use polyunsaturated oils like canola, soy and corn.